Have you ever experienced the frustration of debating with someone whose arguments just weren’t logical? Or perhaps you’ve been disappointed by how easily some of your own arguments have been dismantled by others.
Chances are, you (and many of the people you’ve argued with) have used logical fallacies.
Logical fallacies are common errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument. Many times they’re used accidentally, but they can also be used to deceive or mislead audiences.
In this post, we’ll break down some of the most common logical fallacies so you’ll know what to avoid in order to make your arguments and discussions stronger.
Types of Logical Fallacies
Here are 15 of the most common logical fallacies with examples to help you avoid using them in future discussions.
1. Ad Hominem
The ad hominem fallacy is the classic case of attacking your opponent instead of her arguments. Instead of logic, this fallacy relies on personal attacks that are not relevant to the discussion at hand.
Ad hominems are frequently used in politics—although not considered ethical arguments, they’re often successful at distracting the public from the real issues.
Example: In the courtroom, a prosecutor brings up the defendant’s lack of steady employment in order to raise questions about the defendant’s credibility.
How to avoid it: Remember to focus on the argument, not the person making it. Address the facts or circumstances of the situation without attacking the speaker.
2. Hasty Generalization
A hasty generalization is when a broad claim is made based on just a few examples, and not substantial proof.
While the claim might be true in one or a few specific cases, there is no sufficient evidence that it’s true in every case.
Example: “The food in Rome isn’t that good. I tried three restaurants and wasn’t impressed.”
How to avoid it: Don’t make generalizations based just on a handful of cases. Your experience is likely not universal.
3. Straw Man Argument
The straw man argument is when you anticipate your opponent’s counter-argument, but present a weak version that can easily be torn down. And pushing over a straw man is hardly impressive!
Example: “The opposition wants to take away all of your firearms. That’s not constitutional because it strips away your Second Amendment rights!”
Here, the opposition’s argument is weakened by being overstated. Most in favor of gun control do not advocate taking away every citizen’s guns, but enforcing more regulations on how guns are bought.
When presented as such an exaggeration, of course the opposition’s position sounds inappropriate and is much easier to attack.
How to avoid it: Be generous to your opponents. Address the strongest counterargument they could present, not a weaker version of it.
4. False Dichotomy
In a false dichotomy, the arguer presents just two solutions to a problem. These are usually extreme and polar opposite of one another, so only one appears acceptable.
The reality, however, is that there are many more options and compromises that can be made. This is another fallacy that is commonly used in politics to polarize the public and push them into supporting controversial policies.
Example: “Vote for Senator Smith or endure four more years of higher taxes.”
How to avoid it: Resist the temptation to oversimplify a problem by presenting just two possible solutions. Or if someone presents you with just two options, think critically about what other possibilities exist.
5. Post Hoc
A post hoc fallacy confuses correlation with causation. It assumes that because B happens after or around A, then A must cause B. This is also usually based on just one or a few observations.
It’s important to keep this fallacy in mind when evaluating data. While two events may occur at the same time or close together, that doesn’t mean that one causes the other.
Example: “This morning I drank orange juice and now I have a headache. Orange juice must give me headaches.”
How to avoid it: Don’t jump to conclusions just because you notice a correlation between two events. Ask yourself what else could have caused event B.
6. Red Herring Fallacy
Red herrings serve to distract an audience and shift their attention away from the original topic, often toward a false conclusion.
A red herring is typically a fact or idea that has little relevance to the real issue. They may direct the focus to a topic that’s easier for the speaker to address.
Example: “I know you didn’t want me to borrow the car, but look, I brought you coffee!”
How to avoid it: Try not to let yourself get distracted by irrelevant details or topics. If you’re not okay with your sister borrowing your car, focus on that—not the fact that she brought your coffee. (But it’s up to you to decide whether her bringing you coffee outweighs the cost of her borrowing your car.)
7. Bandwagon Fallacy
The old “everyone else is doing it” fallacy—since others seem to agree with it, it must be right.
Just because many people do or accept something, doesn’t mean it’s true, right, or healthy. Humans can be mistaken, deceived, or even willfully irrational in their opinions.
Example: “All my friends are buying the new iPhone. It must be the best!”
How to avoid it: Don’t rely on something’s popularity in order to make decisions. Instead, look at facts and other pros and cons that can help you make the best choice for you.
8. Slippery Slope Fallacy
A slippery slope fallacy assumes that one course of action will certainly lead to a future chain of (undesired) events.
It usually starts with a seemingly harmless, benign premise, then quickly transitions into convincing the audience that this premise will lead to ridiculous (and often unlikely) consequences with no evidence.
Example: “If you miss practice tomorrow, your team won’t perform well in the finals, so you won’t be able to get a scholarship and you’ll end up a penniless dropout on drugs.”
How to avoid it: Don’t let your emotions make you imagine the worst. Also, question any assertions that sound exaggerated and jump quickly from a simple premise to a catastrophe.
9. Sunk Cost Fallacy
A sunk cost fallacy is when you continue doing something because you figure you’ve already put so much time and effort into it, you might as well keep going.
You decide this regardless of whether the additional costs actually outweigh the potential benefits.
Example: You decide that since you’ve already spent three hours watching the first three episodes of a series, you might as well finish the other seven episodes, even if you don’t really like it.
How to avoid it: When making a decision, don’t just focus on what you think you’ve lost. Ask yourself what the benefits of leaving or stopping now would be.
10. Circular Argument
A circular argument is when you use a claim as both the premise and conclusion of your argument.
Essentially, the support for your claim is just your claim repeated, but in different words.
Example: “The president is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.”
How to avoid it: Take care to use concrete evidence to support your claims. Don’t just restate your claim in different terms. Answer the question of “why.”
11. Equivocation
An equivocation fallacy is when a speaker uses a word or phrase in one way but really means another, deliberately confusing, misleading, or deceiving the audience.
When it’s done comically or artistically, equivocation is what we’d call “a play on words.” However, it’s often used in politics and the media to mislead.
Example: “I promised I’d never speak to him again, and I didn’t. I sent him a text message.”
How to avoid it: If you encounter this fallacy, the most important thing is being able to recognize it and understand that the speaker is probably trying to mislead you.
12. Appeal to Ignorance
An appeal to ignorance shifts the burden of proof away from the person making the argument.
Speakers who use this appeal argue that a claim must be true because it has not been proven false (or vice versa).
Example: “No one has ever found proof that aliens exist, so they must not exist.”
How to avoid it: Remember that a lack of evidence doesn’t equate to nonexistence.
13. Appeal to Hypocrisy
Also known as the tu quoque fallacy, this is the classic case of “Well he does it too!” Like an ad hominem, it shifts the focus from the real issue at hand, and instead attacks the other person’s character (in this case, by painting them as a hypocrite).
In this way, the speaker deflects criticism of themselves and projects it back onto their opponent.
Example: “You used to smoke when you were my age, so how can you tell me it’s bad?”
How to avoid it: If you’re criticized for doing something, don’t point fingers at others. Address the issue, either defending your actions or acknowledging your mistakes—but don’t make it about anyone else.
14. Appeal to Authority
Appeals to authority rely on the supposed authority of an expert’s name or title. While citing expert opinions can help support your argument, it becomes a fallacy if their expertise is irrelevant, exaggerated, or illegitimate.
Example: “According to Dr. Smith, a leading orthopedic surgeon, face masks are ineffective at preventing the spread of disease.”
How to avoid it: Reference authority opinions only if relevant and reliable. Also remember that even experts can be wrong.
15. Appeal to Pity
An appeal to pity provokes the audience’s emotions to win an argument, rather than using factual evidence.
Appealing to pity attempts to pull on an audience’s heartstrings, distract them, and get them to support your point of view.
Example: “Professor, I know I didn’t do well on the essay, but my cat died yesterday, and I really need an A to pass this class.”
How to avoid it: Don’t rely on a sad story to get others to see your way. Be transparent and only use relevant facts and logic to defend your case.
Avoiding Logical Fallacies
Fallacies make arguments weak, but now that you’re familiar some of the most common ones, you can work on avoiding them in your arguments and discussions.
To build stronger arguments that are rooted in logic, check out our tips on how to practice logical thinking.
Did you find this post helpful? Let us know in the comments below!
If you enjoyed this post, then you might also like:
- 7 Books on Logic That Will Help You Think Clearly
- How to Practice Logical Thinking: Tips and Examples
- Critical Thinking Skills: Definitions, Examples, and How to Improve Them
As a blog writer for TCK Publishing, Kaelyn loves crafting fun and helpful content for writers, readers, and creative minds alike. She has a degree in International Affairs with a minor in Italian Studies, but her true passion has always been writing. Working remotely allows her to do even more of the things she loves, like traveling, cooking, and spending time with her family.
