The Origin of Zombies: From Haiti to the Walking Dead

Like vampires and werewolves, zombies have been a popular trope in horror for decades. Their spikes in popularity tend to coincide with certain trends, world events, and the arrival of new hit films and TV shows, but the idea of the “living dead” has its roots in centuries-old Haitian traditions and folklore.

In this post, we’ll take a look at zombie origins, and trace their evolution from slave folklore to the deformed, flesh-eating monsters that haunt our screens today.

Zombie Traits

In popular culture and folklore, zombies are portrayed as reanimated corpses that typically feed on human flesh. In film and television, they’re often placed in a post-apocalyptic setting or context, where a “zombie virus” spreads throughout the population through zombies bites or scratches.

Here are some common zombie traits, as depicted in popular culture:

physically strong
technically dead, but mobile
feed on human flesh or brains
only mission is to eat
non-communicative
unemotional
in a decaying or rotting state

Where Did Zombies Originally Come From?

The Ancient Greeks were the first with a documented fear of the dead—or, undead. Archaeologists have discovered ancient graves of skeletons that were pinned down by rocks and other heavy objects, presumably to prevent the bodies from rising and reanimating.

(This is similar to medieval vampire-slaying rituals, where suspected vampires were buried with a stake through the heart. Read more about this in our post on the history of vampires.)

However, most zombie mythology really got its start in Haitian culture in the 17th century, when West African slaves were brought to the Caribbean island to work on sugar cane plantations. Although death was usually the only escape from the horrors of slavery, many resisted suicide because they feared they would become zombies and remain slaves even in the afterlife.

After the Haitian Revolution of 1804 ended French colonialism, the myth evolved slightly and was folded into the Voodoo religion. Today, many Haitian followers of Voodoo still believe zombies are revived by a Voodoo practitioner, known as a bokor.

According to Voodoo traditions, bokors use herbs, shells, fish, animal parts, bones, and other objects to create various concoctions. One of those concoctions is a “zombie powder,” which contains tetrodotoxin, a deadly neurotoxin found in pufferfish and some other marine species.

When used carefully at sub-lethal doses, the concoction may cause difficulty walking, mental confusion, and respiratory problems—all “zombie-like” symptoms. High doses of tetrodotoxin can also lead to paralysis and coma, which can cause someone to appear dead.

Etymology

The word “zombie” first appeared in the English language in 1810, in historian Robert Southey’s book, History of Brazil. However, the zombi Southey described was not like our modern, brain-eating interpretations; rather, it was used to refer to a West African deity.

Later, the Haitian Voodoo culture would shape the meaning toward our more modern interpretations of zombies—a creature human in form, but without self-awareness, intelligence, or a soul.

Zombies in Popular Culture

In literature, film, and television, zombies have enjoyed their share of the limelight. Here’s a look at some of their most influential depictions on the page and screen:

Early References in Film and Literature

The word “zombie” entered the mainstream around 1929, when the travel writer William Seabrook released The Magic Island, in which he writes about seeing Voodoo practices in Haiti and the concept of the zombi. Several film scholars believe the book was the basis of the classic 1932 horror film White Zombie.

The film was indeed about white, not black, zombies. In it, a Haitian plantation owner convinces a young couple to marry on his plantation, but they don’t know he’s plotting to seduce the bride. A local Creole mill owner gives him a zombie potion to use on the bride.

Unlike White Zombie, other films that followed rarely took place on Haiti or incorporated the Voodoo origins.

But when did America’s modern fascination with the “walking dead” really start? According to Stanford literary scholar Angela Becerra Vidergar, the WWII bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, along with the horrors of the Holocaust, made us face the real possibility of death on a mass scale. People began to imagine a post-nuclear world where only the fittest would survive (which is a prominent theme in zombie fiction).

Then in 1968, the film Night of the Living Dead was released, and set an expectation that zombie movies would be a “vehicle for social commentary.” The film starred a black actor, Duane Jones, as the protagonist, which was rare at the time, and was seen by audiences as a blatant connection to the civil rights movement.

Zombie fiction experienced a relative decline in popularity during the 1980s and ’90s. Dawn of the Dead (1978) was the most commercially successful zombie movie until the 2000s.

Zombie Fiction Revival

In the late 1990s, the zombie film revival began in Japan with a string of successful low-budget films, and many were inspired by zombie video games, such as Resident Evil and The House of the Dead, which dwelled more on the action than the films of the 1960s and ’70s.

Dawn of the Dead was also remade in 2004, while zombie comedies such as Zombieland also flourished.

As the graph from Google Trends shows above, interest in the search term ‘zombies’ began to take off around 2008, and continued to grow through 2010, when AMC’s The Walking Dead debuted. Although interest peaked around 2012, zombies have maintained their hold on the public’s imagination. You can even find zombie survival kits on Amazon!

Examples of Zombie Films and TV Shows

Below is a list of some of the most successful or influential zombie films and TV shows:

For zombie literature, check out our list of the 20 best zombie books.

Real Zombies?

In 2012, the CDC (Center for Disease Control) raised eyebrows when it added a “zombie preparedness” page to its website. (Although, on closer inspection, it looks like the CDC just wants us to be prepared for any natural disaster by stocking up on water, non-perishable food, first aid kits, and other essential supplies.)

While there is no documented evidence of the flesh- and brain-eating zombies we see in film and television, there have been several credible reports in medical journals of a bokor’s concoction being used to induce paralysis in people, who are later “revived” from the grave.

One of the most studied cases is that of Clairvius Narcisse, a Haitian man who was admitted to the hospital with respiratory problems in 1962. Doctors found no explanation for his symptoms, which grew worse until he was pronounced dead three days later.

In 1980, a man who identified himself as Clairvius approached Angelina Narcisse and claimed to be her brother. He used a childhood nickname and several other personal details to convince her and other villagers of his identity.

According to Clairvius, he had been conscious but paralyzed during his burial. Shortly after, he was removed from his grave and forced to work at a sugar plantation. It’s believed he had been given a paste made from datura,which at certain doses has a hallucinogenic effect and can cause memory loss.

The bokor who revived Clairvius then forced him, along with others, to work on a sugar plantation. When the bokor died, and Clairvius no longer received regular doses of the hallucinogen, he was able to regain his sanity and his memory to return to his family.

Our Undying Love for the Undead

Ever since American pop culture appropriated the Haitian zombie myth, audiences have been drawn to this horror trope not only for its gruesome thrills, but also its themes of survival against all odds.

And as long as we face unknown—whether it be a strange virus, or some new technology gone wrong—the possibility of a zombie outbreak will never be too far off in our imaginations. (But remember: if the worst happens, the CDC’s got you covered!)

Is there anything that surprised you about the origin of zombies? Share your thoughts in the comments below!

If you enjoyed this post, then you might also like:

Kaelyn Barron

As a blog writer for TCK Publishing, Kaelyn loves crafting fun and helpful content for writers, readers, and creative minds alike. She has a degree in International Affairs with a minor in Italian Studies, but her true passion has always been writing. Working remotely allows her to do even more of the things she loves, like traveling, cooking, and spending time with her family.